In
1860, 80% of Americans lived on farms. In 1870, 75% lived on farms.
Self
reliance and independence set farmers apart from wage earners in the cities.
However, 1/4 of farmers were tenant farmers or sharecroppers who did not own
their own land and remained in a cycle of debt, always beholden to the
landowner.
Isolation
from centers of population and even neighbors characterized social life. The
Saturday ride into "town" to shop and conduct business was the big
event of the week. Children attended one-room schoolhouses with a single teacher
teaching all grades together. The school year was short due to the need to work
in the field during spring planting and fall harvest.
Immigrant
and black farmers faced special problems due to discrimination and because the
vast majority of them were sharecroppers.
Economic
Problems for Farmers in the Industrial Age.
Overproduction lead to lower prices. Overproduction resulted from 1) rapid opening of new farm lands 2) the development of new farm machinery and improved farming methods 3) increased foreign competition in export markets from Canada, Russia, Australia, and Argentina.
The
price of farm equipment, housing, clothing, supplies, furniture and other goods
increased as prices for the goods farmers produced decreased. The 1880s was the
"decade of mortgages" with interest rates from 8 to 20 percent. Some
bankers made millions in a few years while falling farm prices made it more
difficult, sometimes impossible, for farmers to pay interest and loans. The
problem of the money supply resulted in falling prices for agricultural goods.
Farmers desired inflationary monetary policies because they believed such
policies would result in higher prices for the farm goods they sold. (They did
not consider that the price of the goods they needed to purchase would also
increase). Distributors and railroads took away profits by charging different rates for the
long haul and short haul; the difference in rates was extreme. Many farmers
operated at a loss
Farmers
organized to improve their situation. The Grange or Patrons of Husbandry was
formed in 1867. At first it was difficult to organize, but falling prices in
1870s lead to membership of 1.5 million by 1875.
Farmers
cooperatives were formed: 1) Sold the produce of a group of farmers directly
to big city markets and bypassed distributors. 2) Bought farm machinery,
clothing, and household goods in large quantities at wholesale prices.
The
Greenbackers received 1 million votes and 14 members were elected to
Congress in 1878. They focused on the silver issue which was tied to the money
supply concerns of farmers who wanted farm prices to increase. Farmers
alliances, were often divided by race in the South.
The
Populist Party was formed in 1891.
The
Platform of the Populist Party
1.
increase in currency through a 16 to 1 silver ratio and free and unlimited
coinage
2.
government ownership of railroads, telegraphs, and telephones
3.
return of railroad and corporate land in excess of formers' needs
4.
graduated income tax
5.
system of national warehouses to store farm goods until markets improve
6.
democratic political reforms: direct election of Senators, secret ballot,
initiative, and referendum
In
1892 the Populists were not successful in the South: racial problems were
unresolved. Grover Cleveland was elected as a Democrat, but populists polled 1
million votes and 22 electoral votes. They gained seats in Congress and state
legislatures.
William
Jennings Bryan was a handsome young lawyer, 36 years old, who served in the
House of Representatives for Nebraska for four years. He
gave his famous "Cross of Gold" speech which claimed that the gold
standard reduced prices for farm goods by limiting the money supply, leading to economic devastation for
farmers. Bryan and the Democrats stole Populists thunder. Populists decided to
support Bryan in 1896. Bryan turned the campaign into a crusade and gave 600
speeches in 14 weeks to 5 million people in 27 states.
Election
Results
McKinley
271 electoral 7 million
popular votes
Bryan
176 electoral 6.5 million
popular votes
Why
did Bryan lose? Sound money supporters, the wealthy, big business, factory
owners and newspapers all supported McKinley. Bryan's election fund was only
$300,000 compared to McKinley's $3.5 million.
Defeat in 1896 ended the power of the Populist Party. However, the Progressive Party and Progressive Democrats and Republicans fought for many of the reforms that the Populists demanded.
Progressives Reform Politics
In
1896 McKinley and the conservative Republicans defeated Bryan and the populist
Democrats. By 1900 a new reform movement was underway called the progressive
movement
Goals
of the Progressives:
1)
restore government to the people
2)
correct abuses in all area of American life
3)
restore equality of opportunity by regulating business
Robert
M. La Follette as governor of Wisconsin helped to break the power of the
political machine. He favored higher taxes on railroads and public utilities
(gas, electric, and streetcar), regulatory commissions to regulate companies
with a public interest, conservation of natural resources (forests and
waterpower). He also promoted good government by using university scholars to
help legislators and courts with research and fact gathering.
Other
governors were encouraged by his example
Women
reformers could not vote, but some were still politically active. The
National Consumer's League (Florence Kelly a leader) gave negative publicity to
enterprises which discriminated against women by paying them less than men and
forcing them to work in unsafe or unhealthy working conditions. The League
Sponsored boycotts of consumer goods produced by child labor and women in
inferior conditions of employment and worked with the National Child Labor
Committee to secure legislation in the interests of women and children. Women
also were at the forefront of the temperance or anti-alcohol crusade.
Social
workers, scholars, journalists, novelists, preachers who exposed the evils and
corruption in business and politics were called muckrakers
by Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt intended the term to be an insult, but the
muckrakers accepted it with pride. Muckraking novelists included Upton Sinclair
(The Jungle) and Jack London (The War of the Classes) and Frank
Norris (The Octopus about the railroads' control over political and
economic life).
According
to Lincoln Steffens the basic problem was not the development of big business,
but instead the "privilege" or the demand for special privileges from
governments by business. The Progressives proposed numerous reforms to fight
special privileges and corruption in business and government.
Prior to 1890 ballots were not secret. In fact they were color coded and printed by parties ahead of time so everyone would know who a person voted for. Political machines used this knowledge to reward and punish voters who supported or opposed the machine. The Australian ballot solved this problem. It was a secret ballot printed at public expense with the names of all candidates printed on one sheet.
The
Initiative - voters could initiate or propose legislation at the state level if
5 to 15 percent of voters signed petitions. The Referendum - similar to the
initiative: if it got enough signatures a bill was placed before all the voters
in a state for approval or disapproval. The Recall enabled voters to remove an
elected government official from office if 25% of voters signed a petition to
hold a special election
Before the direct primary parties chose candidates at special conventions which were controlled by insiders and professional politicians. The people did not select the candidates, instead the most powerful members of the parties did, sometimes in the back rooms and behind closed doors.
The
direct primary allowed voters to select candidates in an election held before the
general election. Wisconsin adopted the direct primary in 1903 and was followed
by almost every other state soon afterwards.
Suffrage
means the right to vote. By 1900 Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, and Idaho had granted
full voting rights to women. Women suffragists worked hard to get the vote in
seven other western states by 1914
was ratified in 1920, giving women the right to vote.
The
Constitution gave state legislators the right to elect Senators
Many
cities were ruled by corrupt political bosses and machines, Mayor and machine
controlled large elected city councils. The commission form of government gave a
few people (five) extraordinary power to run a city (Galveston, Texas after a
terrible Hurricane). The Manager form of government gave the Manager, an expert
in municipal administration without political connections, the right to run the
city as efficiently as possible. The manager was appointed by the elected city
council or board of commissioners (not elected by the people).